Tuesday, 18 April 2017

Critical investigation draft #5

No I am not in danger, Skyler. I am the danger![1] - Walter White
Do TV Crime Dramas Like ‘Breaking Bad’ Generate Moral Panics And Negatively Contribute To Social Issues Through The Impact They Have On Audiences?
There has been an on-going debate in the media about whether 'it' is to blame for some people’s heinous actions or whether the people in question acted out of their own self-interest. There is no pretence that the media influences people to go and do things, for example TV advertisements were made with just that in mind; but can the media (through broadcasting violence) also contribute negatively towards social issues and create moral panics? This essay will explore whether TV crime dramas like ‘Breaking Bad’, the critically acclaimed American TV show about a high school chemistry teacher who decides to "break bad” and cook up the finest drugs north of the border, can influence audiences and add to social issues or resolve them. Audiences can be impacted/influenced by material they see in the media whether this be in film, on the news or in TV, we call this media effects and "at its most basic, this theory suggests the media transmit ‘messages’ (ideas, information, beliefs and so forth) that are then picked up and acted upon by the audience (receivers) "[2]. So does this mean that if someone were to see a murder constructed in a text like ‘Breaking Bad’ that they'll be motivated to go and copy it? The theory does give us an insight in to how audiences "receive" texts but of course there are other factors in play and the media effects is not the only theory which can be used to rationalise someone’s actions. 

TV crime dramas can take one of two perspectives. We can view the story from the side of law or from the side that is going against the law (criminals). Typically in TV crime dramas the two “binary opposites” [3] that are most obvious are good vs. bad and for the most part as an audience we side with the “good side” because we share the same values as them and because “watching the good guys win makes us feel better[4], so under what circumstances would we side with the “Villain”[5]?  ‘Breaking Bad’  is a prime example of how this happens as  it goes against the general codes and conventions of the TV crime drama genre and instead of following the perspective from the “good side” (police/detectives) it follows the “bad side”. We are not forced to coincide with the values and ideologies that this side possesses but with ‘Breaking Bad’ in particular we sympathise with the characters on this side and we passively root for their success.

Similarly in another TV crime drama called ‘Dexter’, the American TV show which follows the life of a Police blood spatter analyst who lives a double life as a serial killer who gets the people which the justice system fails, we are made to sympathise with this “psychotic” character, Why? “Walter White and Serial killer Dexter are not morally good”. [6]They are not our “Traditional heroes” [7]as they do not dress up in capes or wear a uniform to fight crime; this can be linked to Propp’s “character theory” [8]where he listed seven broad character types including the “hero” and “villain”, so where does our duo fit in on the list? They are not heroes, this is based purely on moral conviction and “heroes traditionally embody fulfilment as they strive to reach goals that are often shared by the audience”[9], they have to be villains and when a character that is so relatable and made to be so iconic can be liked and sympathised with an entire audience makes it dangerous because people see them as their heroes and could potentially be influenced by them. If you can dream about being Superman then surely you can dream about Walter White?  However, some may argue that Walter White and Dexter could not possibly be the villainous type because they can associate their characters with themselves so well. That is why the term “Anti-hero” (an Archetype theorised by Carl Jung) [10] can be used here to describe the type of characters Walter White and Dexter are portrayed to be: “An anti-hero is a literary device used by writers for a prominent character in a play or book that has characteristics opposite to that of a conventional hero[11]”, White and Dexter both have civil jobs that contribute to a good cause but they are far from heroic. Audiences relate with them so much because they depict a much truer version of reality. Traditionally, heroes are the people who fight crime and wear capes and have a side-kick but who can relate to that in this era? That is why people see the good and the bad that these characters have and their imperfections as someone who reflects the image of an everyday sort of life; something that they can sympathise with.

As mentioned above, ‘Breaking Bad’ is part of the TV crime drama genre and the genre has many different codes and conventions. Whilst for the most part ‘Breaking Bad’ adheres to the general criteria it does stray away from the structures more used in the past and has formed a new type of TV crime drama. An example of this is from a scene is filled with all the essential props such as the drugs and weapons and other iconography associated with the TV crime genre but what makes this gratuitously violent  scene stand out more is the music used. In a scene where we see nine murders take place in the space of two minutes in three different locations you would not expect there to be a classical and harmonious song playing and instead you could expect rap or grime music to accompany a scene like this. This is because rap music is usually associated with such activities and this is portrayed negatively in many music videos through “short hand stereotypes” (Medhurst)[12]. From this you could argue that the music used is contrapuntal in the scene as it does not fit the setting. As the sound is contrapuntal, it could influence and impact the audience because it is a distraction from reality. This can be linked to the “hypodermic needle theory” [13]which states that “audiences are passive and they cannot resist the media message”[14] as the show is “injecting” [15]the audience with graphical content, such as gang violence can have an adverse effect on the people not mature enough to watch and especially in the scene described where it is made to seem de-sensitised with the use of music. This could be dangerous in creating social issues like drug usage and violence if it were ever copied.
For a show like ‘Breaking Bad’ which had around “10.3 million [16]live viewers” for its last show its audience reach is unprecedented. Along with this its production company-AMC they had ties with the large streaming service Netflix, so ‘Breaking Bad’ was also available in dozens of countries to stream. An audience reach of this kind is likely to have some sort of impact/influence on audiences as there is not really any niche audience demographic ‘Breaking Bad’ is aimed at as it so widely available.  This reinforces the idea of the globalisation of media products and more importantly “cultural imperialism”[17] as above all else ‘Breaking Bad’ reinforces core American values like family and patriotism and at the same time undermines other races like the Latinos by placing them (white Americans) above everyone else.

To answer and debate the question further we must first understand what a “Moral Panic” [18] is. A moral panic was first theorised by Stanley Cohen and he states that a moral panic is “a condition, episode, person or group of persons emerges to become defined as a threat to societal values and interests”[19]. Ways in which this can be constructed range across all media platforms. Moral panics today are much more widespread but are no different in terms of where and how they are constructed to those in the past. An example we can compare this to is a UK TV crime series called ‘Dixon of Dock Green’[20]. Unlike ‘Breaking Bad’ it did follow the typical conventions of the genre and had a protagonist who was focused on taking down the villain. However, it did still have the power to influence the audience because characters like police constable George Dixon, were very strong and iconic, “The programme presented the eponymous George Dixon/ Jack Warner as an upstanding and honest police man[21]”. This denotes how people viewed the police back in the 60’s and this can be linked to certain hegemonic values that we still believe about the police today and because of this we do not see past their imperfections like corruption. ‘Dixon of Dock Green’ explored areas of corruption in the Met Police force and in its own way spurred on a movement against corruption in the police.

‘Dixon of Dock Green’; something which has been described as an anachronism because of the way it was portrayed in the 70’s has been said to of presented a “cosy rosy view of British society [22]as the way ‘Dixon of Dock Green’ was presented later on in the 70’s “was actually at odds with the reality of that period”[23]. This proves that the show was intentionally not moving forward with the time to better reflect the situation of the 70’s where the police were becoming more defensive, shows like ‘The Sweeney’ [24]better reflected the police force in that time. Therefore, Jack Warner’s character could be said to be reflecting the zeitgeist as it. The way this links to the question is how it almost tried to avoid a moral panic by reinforcing the dominant, hegemonic values and ideas about the police by idealizing characters like George Dixon, something which gives the police force a strong and upstanding  British image.
To go into more depth about moral panics it should be questioned about “What impact do moral panics have?”[25]. This is because audiences are not all the same and are therefore impacted by what they see in the media or through media texts in different ways. Just like the “hypodermic needle theory”[26] cited, audiences can be injected with the content they see on screen; there are other theories which try to also offer an explanation as to how audiences receive the media. The “dependency theory” by De Fleur and Rokeach [27] is another theory used to explain how the media can affect society. One aspect of the dependency theory looks at “behavioural effects”[28], that the media can have on an audience and this can be applied here because ‘Breaking Bad’ is notorious for, among other things, its gratuitous and violent scenes and this sparks fear among those who believe in media effects and the dependency theory because it states: “aggression maybe activated, depending on the nature of the television message received[29]”. One scene in particular from ‘Breaking Bad’ that could reinforce the idea of moral panics is from an episode titled “Ozymandiaz”[30], after the poem by Shelley. In the beginning of the episode there is a fatal shootout which is set in a desert, the setting is analogous with that of the set of an old fashioned Western shootout. This is evident with the location of the setting as there are certain comparable aspects but this is done with a modern twist, for example the medium shots used to shows us the characters readying their guns tells us that they are armed with the latest weaponry. More medium shots are used to help us identify different groups of people, for example one shot in particular shows a Nazi symbol on one of the character’s hands, we also see from this shot that the man is wearing a bullet-proof vest which suggests he is a far-right Neo-Nazi. The whole idea of Nazism could create a moral panic as audiences may see this as a return of an old-fashioned ideology, however some may relate to this group as this scene from ‘Breaking Bad’ maybe cathartic for them.This leads on to the belief about the “copycat effect”, [31] that people who view the media can copy what they see which results in terms like “copycat crimes [32]and killings”. ‘Breaking Bad’ has been scrutinised countless times about glamorising the drug lifestyle which draws the audience in closer and almost encourages them to try it in the real world.

There is no shortage of cases where ‘Breaking Bad’ has been blamed for inspiring people and influencing their behaviour, for example a tabloid story wrote about how ‘Breaking Bad’ inspired a teacher from Cardiff to start his own illicit drug operation; “investigations also uncovered further evidence similar to hit drama Breaking Bad”[33]. This article went to show how influential the show is but more importantly for arguing about whether this show could create moral panics, because of this news article, audience groups persisting of people from the upper class may now become frightened at the notion of drug usage becoming a problem. However, this may not relate to a moral panic at all because the fact that this article about ‘Breaking Bad’, a hugely popular show amongst younger viewers, means that people ( in the age demographic of 16-25) would not be afraid or unnerved by the idea of drug usage inspired by ‘Breaking Bad’ becoming a problem they may see it as there favourite show coming to life. Also,  the Telegraph reports how ‘Breaking Bad’ is being “blamed for shocking rise in crystal meth usage”[34], figures state how attempts to smuggle crystal meth into the country has risen by around “400%”[35] , but can ‘Breaking Bad’ be the scapegoat for this crystal meth epidemic? To an extent yes, however the show does not encourage people to go and take drugs but “it’s very inclusion promotes interest in that substance”[36]. Similarly, in the TV show ‘Dexter’, it does not tell people to go out and kill people its all about how the audience receives the message. Dexter has also come under scrutiny where supposed copycat killers say they were motivated by ‘Dexter’ to go out and perform their heinous actions, “most people convicted of copycat murders admit to being motivated by something they had seen on the news or in a film”[37]. The keyword is motivation, they are not forced into anything but instead choose to take what they see on TV as real life and acceptable, this tends to happen in a case where the people are younger than the specified age restrictions which opens the case for more censorship in the media to ‘protect’ younger people.

All the theories mentioned above about how audiences interpret media texts imply that they are passive. Stuart Hall talks about another reception theory that states audiences are active in their decision to view and interpret media products. Hall initially talks about there being three positions the reader of a programme might occupy;“dominant (hegemonic reading), negotiated reading and an oppositional reading (counter-hegemonic)”[38]. In the case of ‘Breaking Bad’, readers could adopt any one of these positions based on what their moral judgements are. Another theorist Morley suggests that “members of a given sub-culture will tend to share a cultural orientation towards decoding messages in particular ways” [39]so therefore depending on who you are and where you come from, it will determine your stance on, for example drug usage. This means that not everyone who views a violent action on a TV show or in the media is then going to replicate it in real life, there are other factors which determine how someone receives a media text and the text itself cannot be at blame for creating moral panics and or social issues. However, depending on the type of show, for example violent TV crime dramas where we see the protagonist on the “wrong” side of the binary opposition like ‘Power’ (2014-present)[40] and ‘Sons of Anarchy’(2008-14)[41], audiences may have different readings in comparison to TV crime dramas where we follow the story from the side of a detective (the good side). Examples of these shows include, Law and Order UK (2009-14) [42]and CSI Miami (2002-08)[43]. People who watch the more violent shows maybe more prone to copy the violence shown, although people who watch the shows where we see the heroes win may decide to want to copy this behaviour. To seek to confirm this  the Bobo doll experiment was devised back in the 60’s to see how young children reacted to violence, “Children learn social behaviour such as aggression through the process of observation learning – through watching the behaviour of another person, this study has important implications for the effects of media violence on children”[44], therefore it could be said that although the text does not have the intended meaning of making people want to replicate the activities shown on screen or real life it leaves an impression on people who find it hard to distinguish between right, wrong and reality.

It will be hard to conclude over the perplexing issue about the whole media effects debate and whether the mass media has a direct influence on an audience. However, opinions and judgements can be formed about whether ‘Breaking Bad’ and TV crime dramas alike can be to blame for creating moral panics and negatively contributing towards social issues through the impact it has on audiences. “At this point, claims that movies or television viewing causes unsocial behaviour has not been proved” [45] so to take a non-believers view of the media being able to influence an audience through violence it could be argued that  “Crime dramas are just that, dramas”[46]. We can say that dramas are different from reality of course but because reality is so mediated and controlled especially in this post-modern era as outlined in Baudrillard’s simulation theory[47] how do we as an audience know what reality is when watching crime dramas or even the news? However, Baudrillard also stated in his theory of hyper-reality that media coverage can “mask the absence of a basic reality”[48]. This means that although it could be based on what is happening in the real world these things are also created for entertainment and escapism and may hide the ideological basis of the text.


















Bibliography

Works cited
Books/journals

·         Baudrillard, J. (1994). Simulacra and simulation. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press
·         Ball-Rokeach, S., & Defleur, M. (1976). A Dependency Model of Mass-Media Effects. Communication Research,3(1), 3-21.
·         Coleman, L. (2004). The copycat effect: how the media and popular culture trigger the m ayhem in tomorrow's headlines. New York: Paraview Pocket Books.
·         Feasey, R. (2013). Masculinity and popular television. Edinburgh: Edinburgh Univ. Press.
·         Goode, E., & Ben-Yehuda, N. (2009). Moral panics: the social construction of deviance. Malden (Mass.): Wiley-Blackwell.
·         Hall, S. (1997). Representation: cultural representations and signifying practices. London: Sage in association with the Open University.  
·         Jung, C. (1981). The Archetypes and the collective unconscious (Vol. 9). Princeton University Press.  – citation for Jung and the anti-hero Walter White
·         Lévi-Strauss, C. (1993). Structural anthropology. Volume 1. Harmondsworth, Middx.: Penguin.
·         Morley , D. (1999). The Nationwide Television Studies.
·         Propp, V. I. (1968). Morphology of the folktale. Austin: University of Texas Press.
·         Said, E. (2012). Reflections on exile: and other literary and cultural essays. London: Granta.
·         Shelley, P. B., & Gayer-Anderson, T. (1999). Ozymandias. Hoopoe Books.
·         Staiger, J. (2005). Media Reception Studies. New York City , NY: NeyYork Press.
·         Vaage, M. B. (2016). The antihero in American television. New York: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group

Newspapers and Magazines
·         Hendry, S. (2010) Media Magazine, Issue 31



Internet
·         A. (n.d.). Breaking Bad blamed for shocking rise in crystal meth usage. Retrieved December 28, 2016, from http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/crime/11206140/Breaking-Bad-blamed-for-shocking-rise-in-crystal-meth-usage.html
·         Anti hero . (n.d.). Retrieved February 20, 2017, from https://literarydevices.net/anti-hero/
·         AS & A2 Recommended Media Studies Theorists. (2014). Retrieved December 30, 2016, from https://oae-media-blog.com/2014/09/11/as-a2-recommended-media-studies-theorists/
·         BreakBad.(n.d.).RetrievedDecember 30, 2016, from http://www.urbandictionary.com/define.php?term=Break Bad
·         Brown, T. K. (2015). Oregon shooting: The mass killing 'contagion effect' Retrieved December 28, 2016, from http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-34385059
·         Dixon of Dock Green. (n.d.). Retrieved December 30, 2016, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dixon_of_Dock_Green
·         H. (2015). Should TV crime dramas better reflect reality? We speak to retired officers in the North East. Retrieved December 30, 2016, from http://www.chroniclelive.co.uk/news/north-east-news/should-tv-crime-dramas-better-8894935
·         Imitate modern: Why do people commit copycat killings? (2016). Retrieved December 29, 2016, from https://drmarkgriffiths.wordpress.com/2016/07/25/imitate-modern-why-do-people-commit-copycat-killings/
·         Leotta, A & Says, M. C. (1970). HOME. Retrieved December 21, 2016, from http://allisonleotta.com/2012/06/love-tv-crime-dramas-hate/
·         Levine, N. (2016, October 05). 'Breaking Bad' bows out with best ever viewing figures. Retrieved February 20, 2017, from http://www.nme.com/news/tv/breaking-bad-bows-out-with-best-ever-viewing-figu-871966
·         Media Effects Theory - Sociology Central. (n.d.). Retrieved November 15, 2016, from http://www.sociology.org.uk/AS_Media_effects.pdf
·          MAGIC BULLET OR HYPODERMIC NEEDLE THEORY OF COMMUNICATION. (n.d.). Retrieved December 21, 2016, from http://communicationtheory.org/magic-bullet-or-hypodermic-needle-theory-of-communication/
·         McLeod, S. (1970). Bobo Doll Experiment. Retrieved November 17, 2016, from http://www.simplypsychology.org/bobo-doll.html  
·         Real-life Breaking Bad teacher found to have secret cocaine lab in home. (2014, March 20). Retrieved February 20, 2017, from https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/mar/20/cardiff-teacher-cocaine-breaking-bad-kuwale  
·         Vladimir Propp. (n.d.). Retrieved December 21, 2016, from http://faculty.goucher.edu/eng215/vladimir_propp_character_types-functions.htm


Moving image texts
·         Donahue, A. (Director). (2002). CSI:Miami [Television series]. CBS.
·         Gilligan, V. (Director). (2008). Breaking Bad [Television series]. AMC.
·         Kemp, C. A. (Director). (2014). Power [Television series]. New York city, New York: Starz.
·         Lindsay, J. (Director). (2006). Dexter [Television series]. Miami, Florida: Showtime.
·         Sutter, K. (Director). (2008). Sons of Anarchy [Television series]. North Hollywood, California: FX.
·         Willis, T. (Director). (1956). Dixon of Dock Green [Television series]. London: BBC.
·         Wolf, D. (Director). (2009). Law and Order: UK [Television series]. ITV.


Works consulted (25 references)
Books/journals consulted
·          Creeber, G. (2008). The television genre book. London: Palgrave.
·         Freedman, D. (2014). The contradictions of media power. London: Bloomsbury.
·         Gunter, B., Mcaleer, J., & Clifford, B. R. (1991). Television Police Dramas and Children's Beliefs about the Police. Journal of Educational Television,17(2), 81-100.
·         Hughes, J., Critcher, C., Rohloff, A., & Petley, J. (2013). Moral Panics in the Contemporary World. Bloomsbury Academic.
·         Lunt, P., & Livingstone, S. (2012). Media Regulation: Governance and the Interests of Citizens and Consumers.
·         Oliver, M. B. (1994). Portrayals of crime, race, and aggression in “realitybased” police shows: A content analysis. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media,38(2), 179-192.
·         Perse, E. M., & Lambe, J. L. (2012). Media effects and society. London: Routledge.
·         Reith, M. (1999). Viewing of crime drama and authoritarian aggression: An investigation of the relationship between crime viewing, fear, and aggression. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media,43(2), 211-221.
·         Turnbull, S. (2010). Crime as entertainment: The case of the TV crime drama. Continuum, 24(6), 819-827.

Magazines/Newspapers consulted
·         Buckingham, D. (2012) Media Magazine, Issue 42, pg 6-9
·         Hendry, S. (2014) Media Magazine, Issue 49 pg 20-24
·         Lacey, N. (2010) Media Magazine, Issue 33, pg 53-55
Webpages consulted
·         A. (n.d.). Tag: Dixon of Dock Green. Retrieved January 05, 2017, from http://www.britishtelevisiondrama.org.uk/?tag=dixon-of-dock-green
·         Brown, T. K. (2015, October 03). Oregon shooting: The mass killing 'contagion effect' Retrieved April 03, 2017, from http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-34385059
·         Carol , A. (n.d.). Censorship won't reduce crime. Retrieved from http://www.libertarian.co.uk/lapubs/lapam/lapam024.pdf  
·         CENSORSHIP WON’T REDUCE CRIME - Libertarian. (n.d.). Retrieved November 17, 2016, from http://www.libertarian.co.uk/lapubs/lapam/lapam024.pdf   
·         DOES MASS MEDIA ENCOURAGE COPYCAT CRIMES AND FAME? WHAT IS ... (n.d.). Retrieved November 17, 2016, from http://shannonscorner.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/Mass-Shootings-Copycats-and-Media-Fame.-Research-Paper-on-Journalism-Ethical-Role.pdf 
·         How does the media affect how people think? (n.d.). Retrieved November 17, 2016, from https://www.truthaboutnursing.org/faq/media_affects_thinking.html  
·         Davies, S. (n.d.). Do we really need more TV crime dramas? Retrieved November 17, 2016, from http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/tvandradio/10796211/Do-we-really-need-more-TV-crime-dramas.html  
·         Living, F. (2011, March 03). Crime Dramas Influence Societies View of Crime. Retrieved April 03, 2017, from https://fyiliving.com/mental-health/crime-dramas-influence-societies-view-of-crime  
·         M. (n.d.). Here's the troubling new evidence on how the media inspires mass shooters. Retrieved April 03, 2017, from http://www.motherjones.com/politics/2015/10/media-inspires-mass-shooters-copycats
·         MailOnline, P. T. (2010, September 15). 'Dexter made me do it': Teenager who murdered brother, 10, claims he was inspired by hit TV show. Retrieved April 03, 2017, from http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1312182/Teenager-inspired-TV-Dexter-murder-brother.html
·         Media system dependency theory. (n.d.). Retrieved November 17, 2016, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media_system_dependency_theory  
·         Moral Judgment and Crime Drama: An Integrated Theory of ... (n.d.). Retrieved November 17, 2016, from http://www.uky.edu/~dlowe2/documents/2.RaneyandBryant2002IntegratedTheoryofEnjoyment.pdf 
·         The media’s first moral panic. (n.d.). Retrieved January 05, 2017, from http://www.frankfuredi.com/article/the_medias_first_moral_panic



[1] White, W Breaking Bad
[2] The media and their audiences. (n.d.).
[3] Lévi-Strauss, C. (1993).
[4] Leotta, A & Says, M. C. (1970). HOME.
[5] Vladimir Propp. (n.d.).
[6] Vaage,M.B.(2016).
[7] Ibid.
[8]  Propp, V.I. (1968),
[9] Hendry, S. (2010)
[10] Jung,C. (1981)
[11] Anti hero . (n.d.).
[12] Stereotypes. (2014).
[13] Magic bullet or hypodermic needle theory of communication. (n.d.).
[14] Ibid.                                                    
[15] Ibid.
[16] Levine, N. (2016, October 05).
[17] Said, E. (2012). 
[18] Cohen, S. (2011). 
[19] Ibid.
[20] Willis, T.& Willis, B. (1955-76) Dixon of Dock Green
[21] Feasey, R. (2013). 
[22] Ibid.
[23] Ibid.
[24] Clegg,T.(1975-1978) The Sweeney
[25] Goode, E., & Ben-Yehuda, N. (2009). 
[26] Magic bullet or hypodermic needle theory of communication (n.d.).
[27] Ball-Rokeach, S.j., and M.l. Defleur. (1976)
[28] Ibid.
[29] Ibid.
[30] Shelley, P. B., & Gayer-Anderson, T. (1999). 
[31] Coleman, L. (2004). 
[32] Brown, T. K. (2015).
[33] Real-life Breaking Bad teacher found to have secret cocaine lab in home. (2014, March 20).
[34] A. (n.d.).
[35] Ibid.    
[36] Ibid.
[37] Imitate modern: Why do people commit copycat killings? (2016).
[38] Hall, S. (1997). 
[39] Morley , D. (1999).
[40] Kemp, C.A. (2014-present) Power
[41] Sutter, K. (2008-2015) Sons of Anarchy
[42] Wolf, D. (2009-2014) Law and Order UK
[43] Donahue, A. (2002-2008) CSI:Miami
[44]  McLeod, S. (1970)..
[45] Staiger, J. (2005). 
[46] H. (2015).
[47] Baudrillard, J. (1994). 
[48] Ibid.